Fuel generation using high-voltage electric fields methods

ABSTRACT

Methods of making fuel are described herein. A method may include providing a first working fluid, a second working fluid, and a third working fluid. The method may further include exposing the first working fluid to a first high-voltage electric field to produce a first plasma, exposing the second working fluid to a second high-voltage electric field to produce a second plasma, and exposing the third working fluid to a third high-voltage electric field to produce a third plasma. The method may also include contacting the third plasma, the second plasma, and the first plasma to form a plasma mixture, cooling the plasma mixture using a heat exchange device to form a cooled plasma mixture, and contacting the cooled plasma mixture with a catalyst to form a fuel fluid.

CLAIM OF PRIORITY

The present application claims the benefit of and priority to U.S.Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/697,148 entitled “Methods forGenerating Fuel Materials and Power, and Sequestering Toxins UsingPlasma Sources,” which was filed on Sep. 5, 2012. The aforementionedapplication is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety and forall purposes.

BACKGROUND

Fuel materials come in a wide variety of forms, from simple gases suchas hydrogen to complex mixtures typically found in aviation fuels. Dueto the wide range of chemical compositions for each type of fuel, fuelsmay be generated through a variety of processes. As a result, certainfuels may require dedicated facilities for fuel synthesis. Accordingly,such facilities may be optimized to generate only the fuels to whichthey are dedicated. In addition, each facility may require feed stocksand/or precursor materials for fuel synthesis.

Developing high efficiency methods for generating a variety of gaseousand/or liquid fuels from a limited number of readily available feedstocks is of high interest. Improved efficiency may be obtained in partby having the fuel generating facility also produce at least someelectric power to lessen the facility's dependence on external powersources. Improved efficiency may also be obtained by a facility havingmultiple points of process control to properly adjust reactiontemperatures and various other process conditions to optimize the fuelgeneration methods.

SUMMARY

In an embodiment, a method of making fuel may include providing a firstworking fluid, a second working fluid, and a third working fluid. Themethod may further include exposing the first working fluid to a firsthigh-voltage electric field to produce a first plasma, exposing thesecond working fluid to a second high-voltage electric field to producea second plasma, and exposing the third working fluid to a thirdhigh-voltage electric field to produce a third plasma. The method mayalso include contacting the third plasma, the second plasma, and thefirst plasma to form a plasma mixture, cooling the plasma mixture usinga heat exchange device to form a cooled plasma mixture, and contactingthe cooled plasma mixture with a catalyst to form a fuel fluid.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A depicts a block diagram of a system for generating fuel from atleast one plasma source according to an embodiment.

FIG. 1B depicts a block diagram of a high-voltage electric fieldgenerator according to an embodiment.

FIG. 2 depicts a flow diagram of a method of making fuel according to anembodiment.

FIG. 3 depicts a flow diagram of a method of exposing a working fluid toa high-voltage electric field according to an embodiment.

FIG. 4 depicts a flow diagram of a method of cooling a plasma mixtureaccording to an embodiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

This disclosure is not limited to the particular systems, devices andmethods described, as these may vary. The terminology used in thedescription is for the purpose of describing the particular versions orembodiments only, and is not intended to limit the scope.

As used in this document, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the”include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meanings as commonly understood by one of ordinary skillin the art. Nothing in this disclosure is to be construed as anadmission that the embodiments described in this disclosure are notentitled to antedate such disclosure by virtue of prior invention. Asused in this document, the term “comprising” means “including, but notlimited to.”

The following terms shall have, for the purposes of this application,the respective meanings set forth below.

As used herein, a fuel refers to any composition of matter that providesa source of energy. Particular fuels that may be used herein includenaphtha, diesel fuel, a diesel fuel blend, Jet Propellant 8 (JP-8) fuel,jet fuel, a jet fuel blend, or gasoline. Naphtha may be a process streamthat contains predominantly five carbons and heavier chemicalcomponents. Naphtha may include a debutanized stream of crackedhydrocarbons that may be processed and used, for example, as a gasolineblending stock. Jet fuel may be a fuel that is generally suitable foruse as an aviation fuel. Jet fuel may comply with one or moreregulations or requirements, such as, for example, ASTM D 1655Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuels. In some embodiments, the jetfuel may be a liquid hydrocarbon fuel. In some embodiments, the jet fuelmay include paraffins as a major component, as well as various aromaticsand napthenes. A blend, such as the diesel fuel blend or the jet fuelblend, refers to a fuel blend that contains at least in part diesel fuelor jet fuel, respectively.

A plasma torch refers to any device capable of generating a directedflow of plasma. Illustrative plasma torches may include, but are notlimited to, ionized gas plasma generating systems, such as InductivelyCoupled Plasma, Transferred Arc DC Plasma, and Non-Transferred Arc DCPlasma. As used herein, the terms “torch” or “torches” refer to plasmatorches. Plasma torches may be capable of reaching temperatures rangingof up to about 10,000° F. to about 20,000° F. (about 5,540° C. to about11,080° C.), or more. Each plasma torch may be a portion of a plasmareactor, which is generally a combination of a plasma torch and areaction vessel with which the plasma torch is used.

A Fischer-Tropsch process as used herein refers to a series of chemicalreactions that produce a variety of hydrocarbon molecules according tothe formula (C_(n)H_((2n+2))). The series of chemical reactions mayproduce alkanes as follows:

(2n+1)H₂ +nCO→C_(n)H_((2n+2)) +nH₂O

where n is a positive integer. The formation of methane (n=1) maygenerally be excluded as methane is gaseous at standard temperature andpressure. Most of the alkanes produced tend to be straight-chain and maybe suitable as fuel. In addition to alkane formation, competingreactions give small amounts of alkenes, as well as alcohols and otheroxygenated hydrocarbons, as described in greater detail herein.

In various embodiments described herein, a method of making fuel mayinclude exposing a first working fluid to a first high-voltage electricfield to produce a first plasma, exposing a second working fluid to asecond high-voltage electric field to produce a second plasma, exposinga third working fluid to a third high-voltage electric field to producea third plasma, and contacting the first plasma, the second fluidplasma, and the third plasma to form a plasma mixture. The plasmamixture may be transported to a heat exchange device that may cool theplasma mixture to form a cooled plasma mixture. The cooled plasmamixture may be contacted with a catalyst to form a fuel. In somenon-limiting examples, the fuel may include at least one of naphtha,diesel fuel, a diesel fuel blend, JP-8 fuel, jet fuel, or a jet fuelblend.

FIG. 1A depicts a system for making fuel according to an embodiment. Thesystem, generally designated 100, may include one or more high-voltageelectric field generators, such as 105, 110, 115, a first processingchamber 120, a heat exchanger 125, a second processing chamber 130, anda fuel storage tank 135.

Each of the one or more high-voltage electric field generators 105, 110,115 may generally be any of various components that may be used togenerate a high voltage potential. Thus, as shown in FIG. 1B, each ofthe one or more high-voltage electric field generators 105, 110, 115 mayhave at least one anode surface 150, at least one cathode surface 155,and an electric potential 160 between the anode surface and the cathodesurface. As a result, a magnetic field 165 and an electric field 170 maybe generated when the electric potential 160 is applied between the atleast one anode surface 150 and the at least one cathode surface 155. Insome embodiments, a flow of gas, as described in greater detail hereinand indicated by the horizontal arrow, may be substantiallyperpendicular to the magnetic field 165. In other embodiments, the flowof gas, as indicated by the vertical arrow, may be substantiallyparallel to the magnetic field 165. The magnetic field 165 and theelectric field 170 may each have an effect on gas that flows through agap between the anode surface 150 and the cathode surface 155. In anon-limiting example, the electric field 170 may stabilize the gasand/or ionize the gas. In another non-limiting example, the magneticfield 165 may alter a spin and/or a velocity of the gas.

Referring again to FIG. 1A, in some embodiments, each of the one or morehigh-voltage electric field generators 105, 110, 115 may be a plasmatorch. While FIG. 1A depicts three high-voltage electric fieldgenerators 105, 110, 115, those skilled in the art will recognize thatany number of high-voltage electric field generators may be used withoutdeparting from the scope of the present disclosure. Thus, for example,the system 100 may include 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or more high-voltageelectric field generators.

It may be appreciated that a source of each of the one or morehigh-voltage electric field generators 105, 110, 115 may be controlledby one or more control systems (not shown). The one or more controlsystems may control all of the one or more high-voltage electric fieldgenerators 105, 110, 115 together and may be different from or includedwith a control system for the entire system 100. Alternatively, each ofthe one or more high-voltage electric field generators 105, 110, 115 mayhave a separate control system. A control system for a high-voltageelectric field generator 105, 110, 115 may include control functions fortorch parameters, such as the voltage of the plasma torch and afrequency of the plasma torch. Control of the high-voltage electricfield generators 105, 110, 115 may be based on one or more processmeasurements, including, but not limited to, a measurement of a voltageapplied to components that generate the high-voltage electric field, acurrent drain of a voltage supply for high-voltage electric fieldgenerators, a temperature of the plasma output of the high-voltageelectric field generators, and a composition of the plasma generated bythe high-voltage electric field generators. It may further beappreciated that each of the high-voltage electric field generators 105,110, 115 may be controlled according to one or more process algorithms.The high-voltage electric field generators 105, 110, 115 may becontrolled according to the same process methods and/or algorithms (asprovided by individual controllers or a single controller).Alternatively, each of the high-voltage electric field generators 105,110, 115 may be controlled according to a different process methodand/or algorithm (as provided by individual controllers or by a singlecontroller).

The first processing chamber (FPC) 120 as used herein may generallyrefer to any chamber that is capable of withstanding one or moreprocessing conditions such as temperature, pressure, corrosion, and thelike under which the combustion of a working fluid in the presence ofcarbon dioxide, oxygen, and/or water takes place. In some embodiments,the FPC 120 may be incorporated with the one or more high-voltageelectric field generators 105, 110, 115. In some embodiments, the FPC120 may include one or more inlets for receiving plasma from the varioushigh-voltage electric field generators 105, 110, 115 and at least oneoutlet for discharging a plasma mixture, as described in greater detailherein. An illustrative FPC 120 may be a plasma arc centrifugaltreatment (PACT) system available from Retech Systems, LLC (Ukiah,Calif.), which includes at least one plasma torch.

In various embodiments, the FPC 120 may be maintained at a vacuum ornear vacuum. In a particular embodiment, the FPC 120 may be maintainedat a pressure of about 50 kPa to about 507 kPa (about 0.5 atmospheres toabout 5 atmospheres), including about 50 kPa, about 100 kPa, about 150kPa, about 200 kPa, about 250 kPa, about 300 kPa, about 350 kPa, about400 kPa, about 450 kPa, about 500 kPa, about 507 kPa, or any value orrange between any two of these values (including endpoints).

The plasma mixture, while in the FPC 120, may attain temperatures ofabout 4000° C. to about 6000° C., as described in greater detail herein.Higher or lower temperatures may be attained according to variousconditions under which the high-voltage electric field generators 105,110, 115 operate. The plasma mixture may be cooled within the FPC 120,at an exit port of the FPC, in a transport device (such as a pipe orother conduit) at an exit of the FPC, or at a combination of theselocations using a coolant addition device (not shown). In someembodiments, the coolant addition device may use a coolant to effectcooling. An illustrative coolant may include liquid oxygen (LOX). Anamount of coolant introduced into the plasma mixture by the coolantaddition device may be controlled by a control system. In somenon-limiting examples, the amount of the coolant added to the plasmamixture may be controlled according to a temperature of the plasmamixture, a composition of the plasma mixture, or other measuredparameters of the plasma mixture. In some embodiments, the controlsystem may be associated only with the coolant addition device. In otherembodiments, the control system may be incorporated into a system forcontrolling the entire system 100. The addition of the coolant to theplasma mixture may reduce the temperature of the resulting plasmamixture (an admixed plasma mixture) to about 1450° C. to about 1650° C.,including about 1450° C., about 1500° C., about 1550° C., about 1600°C., about 1650° C., or any value or range between any two of thesevalues. It may be further appreciated that the admixed plasma mixturemay have a composition that is different from that of the plasmamixture.

The heat exchanger 125 may generally be a device that is configured totransfer thermal energy from one medium to another such as, for example,a gas to another gas, a gas to a liquid, a liquid to another liquid, andthe like. Illustrative examples of the heat exchanger 125 may include asteam generating heat exchanger (i.e., a boiler), a gas-gasinterchanger, a boiler feed water exchanger, a forced air exchanger, acooling water exchanger, or a combination thereof. Use of a plurality ofheat exchangers 125, each producing successively lower pressure steamlevels, is contemplated to be within the scope of the presentdisclosure. For example, the heat exchanger 125 may include a radiantheat exchanger, a convective heat exchanger, or a combination thereof.Steam and condensate may be generated from the heat exchange process andmay include one or more steam products of different pressures. In aparticular embodiment, the heat exchanger 125 may be a heat recoverysteam generator (HRSG) such as, for example, a device manufactured byNEM (Leiden, Netherlands). The HRSG 125 may be configured so that noloss or degradation of the plasma mixture occurs when the HRSG receivesthe plasma mixture from the FPC 100. Thus, the HRSG 125 may be capableof withstanding various temperatures, pressures, corrosive chemicals,and the like when contacting the plasma mixture. In some embodiments,the HRSG 125 may be lined with a ceramic to assist in accommodating anelevated temperature of the plasma mixture. In some embodiments, theHRSG 125 may include a first inlet for receiving the plasma mixture orthe admixed plasma mixture discharged from the FPC 120, a second inletfor receiving a fluid such as water, a first outlet for dischargingsteam, and a second outlet for discharging a cooled plasma mixture, asdescribed in greater detail herein. In some embodiments, an amount ofwater that enters the heat exchanger 125 via the second inlet may becontrolled by a control system, as described in greater detail herein. Aheated heat exchange material, which may include steam as a non-limitingexample, may exit the heat exchanger 125 by means of the first outlet.The heated heat exchange material may be further transported to a firstelectric turbine to generate a first supply of electric power.

In various embodiments, the heat exchange material may be water, whichmay be converted to a supply of steam in the heat exchanger 125. Oncethe supply of steam has activated the electric turbine, the supply ofsteam may be cooled to liquid water. In some embodiments, the liquidwater may be returned to the heat exchanger 125 to be reheated by moreof the plasma mixture or the admixed plasma mixture. Alternatively, thefirst supply of steam, after activating the electric turbine, may bereturned to a working fluid source to be supplied to one or more of thehigh-voltage electric field generators 105, 110, 115.

The second processing chamber 130 is not limited by this disclosure, andmay generally be any type of structure, such as a chamber, a furnace, atube, or the like, that may be used for controlling and containing areaction. It will be appreciated that the second processing chamber mayinclude a plurality of chambers. In particular embodiments, the secondprocessing chamber 130 may be a chamber that is configured for anyFischer-Tropsch process.

The fuel storage tank 135 is not limited by this disclosure, and maygenerally be any vessel configured to at least receive fuel from thesecond processing chamber 130. In addition, the fuel storage tank 135may, for example, be used to store fuel, transport fuel, dispense fuel,and/or the like.

In various embodiments, the system 100 may further include a gasseparator (not shown). The gas separator may include, for example, amembrane separation system, a molecular sieve, or a combination thereof.The gas separator may generally be used to separate various componentsdescribed herein, and may optionally deposit the separated componentsinto various gas holding containers. The gas holding containers, forexample, an H₂ container and a CO container, may each include an outflowmetering device. Each outflow metering device may be controlled by acontroller. Alternatively, the outflow metering devices of each of theindividual gas holding containers may be controlled by the samecontroller. Each gas holding container may also have a gas output portassociated with the corresponding outflow metering device. Each gasoutput port may direct the gas from the corresponding gas holdingcontainer into a common supply duct.

The outflow metering devices of each of the gas holding containers maybe controlled to permit an amount of gas into the common supply duct tocreate a cooled plasma mixture having a controlled composition, asdescribed in greater detail herein. In one non-limiting example, thecooled plasma mixture may be controlled based on one or more gascomposition sensors associated with the common supply duct. In anothernon-limiting example, the cooled mixture may be controlled based on avolume of gas emitted by each outflow metering device. In yet anothernon-limiting example, the cooled plasma mixture may be controlled basedon the pressure of gas contained in each gas holding container.Accordingly, various ratios of the components of the cooled plasmamixture, as described in greater detail herein, may be obtained.

FIG. 2 depicts a flow diagram of a method of making fuel according to anembodiment. The method may include providing 205 a first working fluid,providing 215 a second working fluid, and providing 225 a third workingfluid. In one non-limiting embodiment, the first working fluid may beoxygen gas (O₂), the second working fluid may be water vapor (H₂O), andthe third working fluid may be carbon dioxide gas (CO₂).

It may be appreciated that the CO₂, O₂, and H₂O in the first processingchamber may be used as working fluids for the respective plasma torches,as described herein. Thus, each gas may be exposed to a high-voltageelectric field. As a result of such exposure, the gases may be reducedto free radical species. For example, H₂O may be reduced to a hydroxylradical OH^(•) and O₂ may be reduced to a superoxide anion radicalO2^(•−). In addition, the gases may be reduced to ionized species. Forexample, O₂ may be reduced to O⁻, O₂, O₂ ⁺, and/or O⁺. The types andamounts of reactive species created by exposure of the gases tohigh-voltage electric fields may differ from those generated by exposureof the gases to heat alone.

Each working fluid may be supplied by its own working fluid source. Inone non-limiting example, CO₂ may be supplied from a CO₂ source, O₂ maybe supplied from an O₂ source, and water vapor (H₂O) may be suppliedfrom an H₂O source. It may be recognized that control of the fluidplasma from each of the high voltage field sources may also includecontrol of the amount of working fluid supplied to each of the highvoltage field sources. Although not shown, it is apparent that theworking fluid supply sources for the CO₂, O₂, and H₂O may also includecontrol and measurement components. Such components may include, withoutlimitation, components to control the amount of the working fluidsupplied by each of the working fluid supply sources (valves) anddevices to measure the amount of each of the working fluid supplied(such as, for example, by measuring chemical composition or pressure ofthe gas delivered). It may be further understood that such measurementand control devices may be controlled by one or more control systems, asdisclosed above. In some embodiments, the control systems may bespecific to one or more of the working fluid supply sources. In otherembodiments, all working fluid supply sources may be controlled by thesame control system. In some embodiments, the working fluid supplysources may be controlled by a control system common to the entire powergeneration system.

Although not illustrated herein, an embodiment may include three workingfluids, such as CO₂, O₂, and H₂O, that may be combined into one or twocombined working fluids before being supplied to one or morehigh-voltage electric field generators. As a non-limiting example, theCO₂, the O₂, and the H₂O may be combined into a single combined workingfluid to be supplied to a high-voltage electric field generator 105,110, 115 (FIG. 1A). By extension, the controllers associated with eachof the supply sources for the CO₂, the O₂, and the H₂O may cause aspecific amount of each gas to be added to the combined working fluid toproduce an optimized ratio of gases. Similarly, the controllerassociated with a single plasma torch may cause the plasma torch tooperate under optimum conditions for a specific ratio of gases in thecombined working fluid.

The first working fluid may be exposed 210 to a high-voltage electricfield to generate a first plasma. As shown in FIG. 3, exposing 210 thefirst working fluid to the high-voltage electric field may includeproviding 305 an anode surface and providing 310 a cathode surface. Theanode surface and the cathode surface may be separated by a distance tocreate a gap between the two surfaces. The distance may generally beselected such that (for the electrical voltage selected), the electricalfield is about 0.3 kV/cm to about 8.0 kV/cm, including about 0.3 kV/cm,about 0.3149 kV/com, about 0.5 kV/cm, about 0.75 kV/cm, about 1.0 kV/cm,about 1.25 kV/cm, about 1.5 kV/cm, about 1.574 kV/cm, about 2.0 kV/com,about 2.5 kV/cm, about 3.0 kV/cm, about 3.149 kV/cm, about 3.5 kV/cm,about 4.0 kV/cm, about 4.5 kV/cm, about 5.0 kV/cm, about 5.5 kV/cm,about 6.0 kV/cm, about 6.5 kV/cm, about 7.0 kV/cm, about 7.5 kV/cm,about 7.559 kV/cm, about 8.0 kV/cm, or any value or range between anytwo of these values (including endpoints). Illustrative distances may beabout 0.15 cm to about 0.65 cm, including about 0.15 cm, about 0.20 cm,about 0.25 cm, about 0.30 cm, about 0.3175 cm, about 0.35 cm, about 0.40cm, about 0.45 cm, about 0.50 cm, about 0.55 cm, about 0.60 cm, about0.65 cm, or any value or range between any two of these values(including endpoints). Thus, to achieve a desired electrical field, avoltage potential may be provided 315 between the anode surface and thecathode surface. For example, a first high voltage electric potentialmay be induced between the anode surface and the cathode surface, andthe first working fluid may be induced 320 to traverse the gap betweenthe two surfaces. In one non-limiting embodiment, the high voltagepotential may be about 2.4 kV times the gap distance in centimeters toabout 60 kV times the gap distance in centimeters, including about 2.4kV, about 5 kV, about 10 kV, about 20 kV, about 30 kV, about 40 kV,about 50 kV, about 60 kV, or any value or range between any two of thesevalues (including endpoints). Thus, for example, a voltage between theanode surface and the cathode surface (which is 0.3175 cm) is 2.4 kV,thereby resulting in an electrical field of about 7.559 kV/cm. Inanother non-limiting embodiment, the high-voltage electric potential maybe an alternating current (AC) potential having a frequency of about 1MHz to about 50 MHz, including about 1 MHz, about 5 MHz, about 10 MHz,about 20 MHz, about 25 MHz, about 30 MHz, about 40 MHz, about 50 MHz, orany value or range between any two of these values (includingendpoints). In another non-limiting embodiment, the high-voltageelectric potential may have a current of about 100 Amperes to about 1000Amperes, including about 100 Amperes, about 200 Amperes, about 300Amperes, about 400 Amperes, about 500 Amperes, about 600 Amperes, about700 Amperes, about 800 Amperes, about 900 Amperes, about 1000 Amperes,or any value or range between any two of these values (includingendpoints).

Referring back to FIG. 2, the second working fluid may be exposed 220 toa high-voltage electric field to generate a second plasma. As shown inFIG. 3, exposing 220 the second working fluid to the high-voltageelectric field may include providing 305 an anode surface and providing310 a cathode surface. The anode surface and the cathode surface may beseparated by a distance to create a gap between the two surfaces. Thedistance may generally be selected such that (for the electrical voltageselected), the electrical field is about 0.3 kV/cm to about 8.0 kV/cm,including about 0.3 kV/cm, about 0.3149 kV/com, about 0.5 kV/cm, about0.75 kV/cm, about 1.0 kV/com, about 1.25 kV/cm, about 1.5 kV/cm, about1.574 kV/cm, about 2.0 kV/cm, about 2.5 kV/cm, about 3.0 kV/cm, about3.149 kV/cm, about 3.5 kV/cm, about 4.0 kV/cm, about 4.5 kV/cm, about5.0 kV/cm, about 5.5 kV/cm, about 6.0 kV/cm, about 6.5 kV/cm, about 7.0kV/cm, about 7.5 kV/cm, about 7.559 kV/cm, about 8.0 kV/cm, or any valueor range between any two of these values (including endpoints).Illustrative distances may be about 0.15 cm to about 0.65 cm, includingabout 0.15 cm, about 0.20 cm, about 0.25 cm, about 0.30 cm, about 0.3175cm, about 0.35 cm, about 0.40 cm, about 0.45 cm, about 0.50 cm, about0.55 cm, about 0.60 cm, about 0.65 cm, or any value or range between anytwo of these values (including endpoints). Thus, to achieve a desiredelectrical field, a voltage potential may be provided 315 between theanode surface and the cathode surface. For example, a second highvoltage electric potential may be induced between the anode surface andthe cathode surface, and the second working fluid may be induced 320 totraverse the gap between the two surfaces. In one non-limitingembodiment, the high voltage potential may be about 2.4 kV times the gapdistance in centimeters to about 60 kV times the gap distance incentimeters, including about 2.4 kV, about 5 kV, about 10 kV, about 20kV, about 30 kV, about 40 kV, about 50 kV, about 60 kV, or any value orrange between any two of these values (including endpoints). Thus, forexample, a voltage between the anode surface and the cathode surface(which is 0.3175 cm) is 2.4 kV, thereby resulting in an electrical fieldof about 7.559 kV/cm. In another non-limiting embodiment, thehigh-voltage electric potential may be an alternating current (AC)potential having a frequency of about 1 MHz to about 50 MHz, includingabout 1 MHz, about 5 MHz, about 10 MHz, about 20 MHz, about 25 MHz,about 30 MHz, about 40 MHz, about 50 MHz, or any value or range betweenany two of these values (including endpoints). In another non-limitingembodiment, the high-voltage electric potential may have a current ofabout 100 Amperes to about 1000 Amperes, including about 100 Amperes,about 200 Amperes, about 300 Amperes, about 400 Amperes, about 500Amperes, about 600 Amperes, about 700 Amperes, about 800 Amperes, about900 Amperes, about 1000 Amperes, or any value or range between any twoof these values (including endpoints).

Referring back to FIG. 2, the third working fluid may be exposed 230 toa high-voltage electric field to generate a third plasma. As shown inFIG. 3, exposing 230 the third working fluid to the high-voltageelectric field may include providing 305 an anode surface and providing310 a cathode surface. The anode surface and the cathode surface may beseparated by a distance to create a gap between the two surfaces. Thedistance may generally be selected such that (for the electrical voltageselected), the electrical field is about 0.3 kV/cm to about 8.0 kV/cm,including about 0.3 kV/cm, about 0.3149 kV/cm, about 0.5 kV/cm, about0.75 kV/cm, about 1.0 kV/cm, about 1.25 kV/cm, about 1.5 kV/cm, about1.574 kV/cm, about 2.0 kV/com, about 2.5 kV/cm, about 3.0 kV/cm, about3.149 kV/cm, about 3.5 kV/cm, about 4.0 kV/cm, about 4.5 kV/cm, about5.0 kV/cm, about 5.5 kV/cm, about 6.0 kV/cm, about 6.5 kV/cm, about 7.0kV/cm, about 7.5 kV/cm, about 7.559 kV/cm, about 8.0 kV/cm, or any valueor range between any two of these values (including endpoints).Illustrative distances may be about 0.15 cm to about 0.65 cm, includingabout 0.15 cm, about 0.20 cm, about 0.25 cm, about 0.30 cm, about 0.3175cm, about 0.35 cm, about 0.40 cm, about 0.45 cm, about 0.50 cm, about0.55 cm, about 0.60 cm, about 0.65 cm, or any value or range between anytwo of these values (including endpoints). Thus, to achieve a desiredelectrical field, a voltage potential may be provided 315 between theanode surface and the cathode surface. For example, a third high voltageelectric potential may be induced between the anode surface and thecathode surface, and the third working fluid may be induced 320 totraverse the gap between the two surfaces. In one non-limitingembodiment, the high voltage potential may be about 2.4 kV times the gapdistance in centimeters to about 60 kV times the gap distance incentimeters, including about 2.4 kV, about 5 kV, about 10 kV, about 20kV, about 30 kV, about 40 kV, about 50 kV, about 60 kV, or any value orrange between any two of these values (including endpoints). Thus, forexample, a voltage between the anode surface and the cathode surface(which is 0.3175 cm) is 2.4 kV, thereby resulting in an electrical fieldof about 7.559 kV/cm. In another non-limiting embodiment, thehigh-voltage electric potential may be an alternating current (AC)potential having a frequency of about 1 MHz to about 50 MHz, includingabout 1 MHz, about 5 MHz, about 10 MHz, about 20 MHz, about 25 MHz,about 30 MHz, about 40 MHz, about 50 MHz, or any value or range betweenany two of these values (including endpoints). In another non-limitingembodiment, the high-voltage electric potential may have a current ofabout 100 Amperes to about 1000 Amperes, including about 100 Amperes,about 200 Amperes, about 300 Amperes, about 400 Amperes, about 500Amperes, about 600 Amperes, about 700 Amperes, about 800 Amperes, about900 Amperes, about 1000 Amperes, or any value or range between any twoof these values (including endpoints).

It may be understood that the anode and cathode surfaces contacting thefirst working fluid, the second working fluid, and the third workingfluid may be the same set of surfaces or they may be different sets ofsurfaces. If each working fluid contacts an independent pair of anodeand cathode surfaces, the respective gap distances may be essentiallythe same or different, and high voltage electric potentials to which theworking fluids are exposed may have essentially the same or differentcharacteristics.

In one non-limiting example, exposing 210 the first working fluid to afirst high-voltage electric field may include causing the first workingfluid to pass through a first plasma torch. In another non-limitingexample, exposing 220 the second working fluid to a second high-voltageelectric field may include causing the second working fluid to passthrough a second plasma torch. In another non-limiting example, exposing230 the third working fluid to a third high-voltage electric field mayinclude causing the third working fluid to pass through a third plasmatorch. The first working fluid, the second working fluid, and the thirdworking fluid may pass through the same plasma torch or may pass throughindividual plasma torches. In addition, the first working fluid, thesecond working fluid, and the third working fluid may pass through aplasma torch consecutively or may pass through a plasma torch atsubstantially the same time.

In some embodiments, exposing 210, 220, 230 the various working fluidsto various high-voltage electric fields may cause the various plasmas toreach a temperature of about 36,000° F. (20,000° C.). The temperaturemay be sufficiently high to enable effective disassociation of variousindividual compounds in each of the various working fluids, aspreviously described herein.

The first, second, and third plasmas may be contacted 235 in anytemporal or spatial order to form a plasma mixture. For example, thefirst plasma, the second plasma, and the third plasma may be contacted235 by directing the second plasma to mix with the first plasma and thethird plasma, directing the first plasma to mix with the second plasmaand the third plasma, directing the third plasma to mix with the firstplasma and the second plasma, or directing the first plasma, the secondplasma, and the third plasma to mix together. Contacting 235 the firstplasma, the second plasma, and the third plasma may form a plasmamixture of all three plasmas. In some non-limiting embodiments, theplasma mixture may have a temperature of about 7232° F. to about 10,832°F. (about 4000° C. to about 6000° C.), including about 7232° F., about7300° F., about 7500° F., about 8000° F., about 8500° F., about 9000°F., about 9500° F., about 10,000° F., about 10,500° F., about 10,832°F., or any value or range between any two of these values (includingendpoints). Thus, the plasma mixture may cool from the initialtemperatures of the first, second, and third plasmas upon passingthrough the respective high-voltage electrical fields.

In various embodiments, the third plasma, the second plasma, and thefirst plasma together may be directed to contact a carbon-basedfeedstock within the FPC to create the plasma mixture. In someembodiments, the carbon-based feedstock may be supplied from acarbon-based feedstock supply. The mechanical components used totransport the carbon-based feedstock into the FPC may be controlledaccording to various process parameters. The control of the transport ofthe carbon-based feedstock may be supplied by a control system. Such acontrol system may be specific to the mechanical components used totransport the carbon-based feedstock into the FPC. Alternatively, such acontrol system may be included in a control system used to control theentire system, as described in greater detail herein. Withoutlimitation, illustrative examples of the carbon-based feedstock mayinclude one or more of bagasse, coal, wood, green waste, sugar beets,corn, or bio-waste products. Bagasse, as used herein, may generallyrefer to any fibrous matter obtained from a plant-based source. Thus, inone non-limiting example, bagasse may include fibrous matter obtainedfrom sugarcane or sorghum stalks, particularly after the stalks havebeen crushed to remove their juice. Green waste may generally includebiodegradable waste that can be comprised of garden or park wastematerial such as grass cuttings, flower cuttings, hedge trimmings,leaves, shrubs, plants, and tree trimmings, and/or waste from fruit andfood processing. Bio-waste products may generally include kitchen waste,such as, for example, food scraps, which may be of animal or plantorigin.

In some embodiments, the plasma mixture may be transported 240 to theheat exchanger. Transporting 240 is not limited by this disclosure, andmay be via any method of transport. Any number of pumps, conduit,channels, ducts, pipes, and/or the like may be used to transport 240 theplasma mixture.

In various embodiments, the plasma mixture may be cooled 245 to atemperature of about 100° F. to about 2950° F. (about 38° C. to about1620° C.), including about 38° C., about 100° C., about 150° C., about200° C., about 260° C., about 500° C., about 750° C., about 11° C.,about 1300° C., about 1600° C., about 1620° C., or any value or rangebetween any of these values (including endpoints). In particularembodiments, the plasma mixture may be cooled 245 to a temperature ofabout 100° F. to about 400° F. (about 38° C. to about 204° C.). In someembodiments, cooling may effect a change in composition of the plasmamixture, such as dissociation of various components, as describedherein. Thus, the components may be separated via a gas separator anddirected to various holding containers, as described in greater detailherein.

In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 4, cooling 245 may be completed bycontacting 405 the plasma mixture with a heat exchanger within a heatexchange device, such as, for example, an HRSG, to produce a cooledplasma mixture. In some embodiments, the heat exchanged from the plasmamixture may be conveyed 410 by the heat exchange device to provide heatto a recovery steam generator, as described in greater detail herein.The steam generated by the heat transfer to the recovery steam generatormay provide preheated water vapor that may be used at least in part asthe second working fluid for conversion into a plasma. Accordingly, thesteam generated by the heat transfer may increase an efficiency of thesystems and methods described herein by providing a reusable heatsource. In some embodiments, the recovery steam generator may use theheat from the plasma mixture to heat and vaporize 415 a vaporizablefluid (such as liquid water or the like). The resulting vaporized fluid(e.g., the steam) may be directed to and contacted 420 with asteam-powered electrical turbine. The steam-powered electrical turbinemay, in turn, generate electric power that may be used, at least inpart, for providing electrical power to the system described hereinand/or a facility used to generate the fuel.

In various embodiments, cooling 245 the plasma mixture may includecooling with liquid oxygen (O₂) to reduce the plasma mixture from afirst temperature to a second temperature. The first temperature, asdescribed herein, may be about 7232° F. to about 10,832° F. (about 4000°C. to about 6000° C.). The second temperature, as described herein, maybe about 4892° F. to about 5432° F. (about 2700° C. to about 3000° C.).This cooling 245 may allow for a split of O₂ and H₂O in the plasmamixture to become O⁻ and O⁺, H⁺ and OH⁻, and/or H⁻ and OH⁺. The cooling245 may further allow for thermal chemical reconversion, therebyresulting in compounds H₂, H₂O, O₂, and/or H₂O₂.

In various embodiments, cooling 245 may result in a water-gas shiftreaction (WGSR). A WGSR is a reversible chemical reaction in whichcarbon monoxide reacts with water vapor to form carbon dioxide andhydrogen (the mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is known as watergas):

CO_((g))+H₂O_((g))→CO_(2(g))+H_(2(g))

where the ΔH_(reac)=−41.16 kJ at 298.15K.

The WGSR may be sensitive to temperature, with the tendency to shifttowards reactants as temperature increases due to Le Chatelier'sprinciple. Over the temperature range of about 600 K to about 2000 K,the logarithm of the equilibrium constant for the WGSR is given by:

${\log_{10}K_{equil}} = {\frac{2408.1}{T} + {1.5350 \times \log_{10}T} - {7.452 \times 10^{- 5}(T)} - 6.7753}$

where the value of K_(equil) approaches 1 at 1,100K. The process may beused in two stages. A first stage may include a high-temperature shift(HTS) at about 662° F. (350° C.). A second stage may include alow-temperature shift (LTS) at about 374° F. to about 410° F. (about190° C. to about 210° C.). Standard industrial catalysts for thisprocess may include iron oxide promoted with chromium oxide for the HTSstep and copper on a mixed support composed of zinc oxide and aluminumoxide for the LTS step.

In various embodiments, the cooled plasma mixture may include at leastcarbon monoxide and hydrogen gas. In some non-limiting embodiments, thecooled plasma mixture may include carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas in aratio of about 0.08:1.5 to about 1.3:2.5, including about 0.1:1.5, about0.5:1.5, about 1:1.5, about 1.3:1.5, about 1:2, about 1:2.25, about1:2.5, or any value or range between any two of these values (includingendpoints). In various embodiments, the ratio of the plasma mixture maybe effectively measured and/or maintained by placing the plasma into agas separator and using volumetric flow metering to add or removecomponents to or from the gas holding containers. Accordingly, variousflow meters may be used to indicate an amount of gas that can be used tomaintain a specified ratio. In some embodiments, it may be important toensure a proper ratio of carbon monoxide to hydrogen gas an effectiveFischer-Tropsch process, to ensure the catalyst (as described herein) isnot contaminated, and/or to ensure the catalyst is not degraded above anormal degradation.

Referring again to FIG. 2, in various embodiments, the cooled plasmamixture may be contacted 250 with a catalyst. Contacting 250 the cooledplasma mixture with a catalyst may result in forming a fuel. The type offuel that results from contacting 250 may be determined by the ratio ofhydrogen gas to carbon monoxide in the plasma, as described in greaterdetail herein. Contacting 250 the cooled plasma mixture with thecatalyst may include transporting the cooled plasma mixture to thesecond processing chamber 130 (FIG. 1A). The catalyst may be, forexample, a Fischer-Tropsch (F-T)-type catalyst or a F-T catalyst. Insome embodiments, the F-T catalyst may contain iron, cobalt, nickel, orruthenium. In addition, the F-T catalyst may be supported, promoted,and/or activated by one or more additional materials. In someembodiments, the catalyst may include at least one of cobalt, iron,ruthenium, nickel, copper, an alkali metal oxide, silica, alumina, or azeolite. In some embodiments, the catalyst may be a Fischer-Tropschvariation catalyst, such as, for example, various catalysts that arecommercially available from Emerging Fuels Technology (Tulsa, Okla.). Insome embodiments, the catalyst may degrade over a period of time and maybe replaced.

In various embodiments, the fuel may be collected 255. Collection is notlimited by this disclosure, and may include any form of collection,storage, transport, dispensing, and/or the like. For example, in someembodiments, the fuel may be collected 255 in the fuel storage tank 135(FIG. 1A).

In the above detailed description, reference is made to the accompanyingdrawings, which form a part hereof. In the drawings, similar symbolstypically identify similar components, unless context dictatesotherwise. The illustrative embodiments described in the detaileddescription, drawings, and claims are not meant to be limiting. Otherembodiments may be used, and other changes may be made, withoutdeparting from the spirit or scope of the subject matter presentedherein. It will be readily understood that the aspects of the presentdisclosure, as generally described herein, and illustrated in theFigures, can be arranged, substituted, combined, separated, and designedin a wide variety of different configurations, all of which areexplicitly contemplated herein.

The present disclosure is not to be limited in terms of the particularembodiments described in this application, which are intended asillustrations of various aspects. Many modifications and variations canbe made without departing from its spirit and scope, as will be apparentto those skilled in the art. Functionally equivalent methods andapparatuses within the scope of the disclosure, in addition to thoseenumerated herein, will be apparent to those skilled in the art from theforegoing descriptions. Such modifications and variations are intendedto fall within the scope of the appended claims. The present disclosureis to be limited only by the terms of the appended claims, along withthe full scope of equivalents to which such claims are entitled. It isto be understood that this disclosure is not limited to particularmethods, reagents, compounds, compositions or biological systems, whichcan, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminologyused herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodimentsonly, and is not intended to be limiting.

With respect to the use of substantially any plural and/or singularterms herein, those having skill in the art can translate from theplural to the singular and/or from the singular to the plural as isappropriate to the context and/or application. The varioussingular/plural permutations may be expressly set forth herein for sakeof clarity.

It will be understood by those within the art that, in general, termsused herein, and especially in the appended claims (for example, bodiesof the appended claims) are generally intended as “open” terms (forexample, the term “including” should be interpreted as “including butnot limited to,” the term “having” should be interpreted as “having atleast,” the term “includes” should be interpreted as “includes but isnot limited to,” et cetera). While various compositions, methods, anddevices are described in terms of “comprising” various components orsteps (interpreted as meaning “including, but not limited to”), thecompositions, methods, and devices can also “consist essentially of” or“consist of” the various components and steps, and such terminologyshould be interpreted as defining essentially closed-member groups. Itwill be further understood by those within the art that if a specificnumber of an introduced claim recitation is intended, such an intentwill be explicitly recited in the claim, and in the absence of suchrecitation no such intent is present. For example, as an aid tounderstanding, the following appended claims may contain usage of theintroductory phrases at least one and one or more to introduce claimrecitations. However, the use of such phrases should not be construed toimply that the introduction of a claim recitation by the indefinitearticles “a” or an limits any particular claim containing suchintroduced claim recitation to embodiments containing only one suchrecitation, even when the same claim includes the introductory phrasesone or more or at least one and indefinite articles such as “a” or an(for example, “a” and/or “an” should be interpreted to mean “at leastone” or “one or more”); the same holds true for the use of definitearticles used to introduce claim recitations. In addition, even if aspecific number of an introduced claim recitation is explicitly recited,those skilled in the art will recognize that such recitation should beinterpreted to mean at least the recited number (for example, the barerecitation of “two recitations,” without other modifiers, means at leasttwo recitations, or two or more recitations). Furthermore, in thoseinstances where a convention analogous to “at least one of A, B, and C,et cetera” is used, in general such a construction is intended in thesense one having skill in the art would understand the convention (forexample, “a system having at least one of A, B, and C” would include butnot be limited to systems that have A alone, B alone, C alone, A and Btogether, A and C together, B and C together, and/or A, B, and Ctogether, et cetera). In those instances where a convention analogous to“at least one of A, B, or C, et cetera” is used, in general such aconstruction is intended in the sense one having skill in the art wouldunderstand the convention (for example, “a system having at least one ofA, B, or C” would include but not be limited to systems that have Aalone, B alone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and Ctogether, and/or A, B, and C together, et cetera). It will be furtherunderstood by those within the art that virtually any disjunctive wordand/or phrase presenting two or more alternative terms, whether in thedescription, claims, or drawings, should be understood to contemplatethe possibilities of including one of the terms, either of the terms, orboth terms. For example, the phrase “A or B” will be understood toinclude the possibilities of “A” or “B” or “A and B.”

In addition, where features or aspects of the disclosure are describedin terms of Markush groups, those skilled in the art will recognize thatthe disclosure is also thereby described in terms of any individualmember or subgroup of members of the Markush group.

As will be understood by one skilled in the art, for any and allpurposes, such as in terms of providing a written description, allranges disclosed herein also encompass any and all possible subrangesand combinations of subranges thereof. Any listed range can be easilyrecognized as sufficiently describing and enabling the same range beingbroken down into at least equal halves, thirds, quarters, fifths,tenths, et cetera As a non-limiting example, each range discussed hereincan be readily broken down into a lower third, middle third and upperthird, et cetera As will also be understood by one skilled in the artall language such as “up to,” “at least,” and the like include thenumber recited and refer to ranges which can be subsequently broken downinto subranges as discussed above. Finally, as will be understood by oneskilled in the art, a range includes each individual member. Thus, forexample, a group having 1-3 cells refers to groups having 1, 2, or 3cells. Similarly, a group having 1-5 cells refers to groups having 1, 2,3, 4, or 5 cells, and so forth.

Various of the above-disclosed and other features and functions, oralternatives thereof, may be combined into many other different systemsor applications. Various presently unforeseen or unanticipatedalternatives, modifications, variations or improvements therein may besubsequently made by those skilled in the art, each of which is alsointended to be encompassed by the disclosed embodiments.

1. A method of making fuel, the method comprising: providing a first working fluid; exposing the first working fluid to a first high-voltage electric field to produce a first plasma; providing a second working fluid; exposing the second working fluid to a second high-voltage electric field to produce a second plasma; providing a third working fluid; exposing the third working fluid to a third high-voltage electric field to produce a third plasma; contacting the third plasma, the second plasma, and the first plasma to form a plasma mixture; cooling the plasma mixture using a heat exchange device to form a cooled plasma mixture; and contacting the cooled plasma mixture with a catalyst to form a fuel.
 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising transporting the plasma mixture to the heat exchange device.
 3. The method of claim 1, further comprising collecting the fuel.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the first working fluid is oxygen gas.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the second working fluid is water vapor.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the third working fluid is carbon dioxide gas.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein exposing the first working fluid to a first high-voltage electric field comprises: providing an anode surface; providing a cathode surface at a distance from the anode surface to create a gap between the anode surface and the cathode surface; providing a first high voltage electric potential between the anode surface and the cathode surface of about 2.4 kV times the distance in centimeters to about 60 kV times the distance in centimeters; and causing the first working fluid to traverse the gap.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the first high voltage electric potential has a frequency of about 1 MHz to about 50 MHz.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein exposing the second working fluid to a second high-voltage electric field comprises: providing an anode surface; providing a cathode surface at a distance from the anode surface to create a gap between the anode surface and the cathode surface; providing a second high voltage electric potential between the anode surface and the cathode surface of about 2.4 kV times the distance in centimeters to about 60 kV times the distance in centimeters; and causing the second working fluid to traverse the gap.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the second high voltage electric potential has a frequency of about 1 MHz to about 50 MHz.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein exposing the third working fluid to a high-voltage electric field comprises: providing an anode surface; providing a cathode surface at a distance from the anode surface to create a gap between the anode surface and the cathode surface; providing a third high voltage electric potential between the anode surface and the cathode surface of about 2.4 kV times the distance in centimeters to about 60 kV times the distance in centimeters; and causing the third working fluid to traverse the gap.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the third high voltage electric potential has a frequency of about 1 MHz to about 50 MHz.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein exposing the first working fluid to a first high-voltage electric field comprises causing the first working fluid to pass through a plasma torch.
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein exposing the second working fluid to a second high-voltage electric field comprises causing the second working fluid to pass through a plasma torch.
 15. The method of claim 1, wherein exposing the third working fluid to a third high-voltage electric field comprises causing the third working fluid to pass through a plasma torch.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein exposing the first working fluid to a first high-voltage electric field comprises causing the first working fluid to pass through a plasma torch, wherein exposing the second working fluid to a second high-voltage electric field comprises causing the second working fluid to pass through the plasma torch, and wherein exposing the third working fluid to a third high-voltage electric field comprises causing the third working fluid to pass through the plasma torch.
 17. The method of claim 1, wherein the plasma mixture has a temperature of about 7232° F. (4000° C.) to about 36032° F. (20000° C.).
 18. The method of claim 1, wherein cooling the first plasma mixture comprises cooling the first plasma mixture to a temperature of about 100° F. (38° C.) to about 2950° F. (1620° C.).
 19. The method of claim 1, wherein the heat exchange device is a heat recovery steam generator.
 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the second working fluid comprises at least in part an amount of steam generated by the heat recovery steam generator.
 21. The method of claim 1, wherein the cooled plasma mixture comprises at least carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas.
 22. The method of claim 1, wherein a ratio of the carbon monoxide to the hydrogen gas is about 1:2.
 23. The method of claim 1, wherein the catalyst is a Fischer-Tropsch type catalyst.
 24. The method of claim 1, wherein the catalyst comprises at least one of cobalt, iron, ruthenium, nickel, copper, an alkali metal oxide, silica, alumina, or a zeolite.
 25. The method of claim 1, wherein the fuel comprises at least one of naphtha, diesel fuel, a diesel fuel blend, JP-8 fuel, jet fuel, a jet fuel blend, or gasoline.
 26. The method of claim 1, wherein cooling the plasma mixture using the heat exchange device comprises: contacting the plasma mixture with the heat exchange device, thereby conveying at least some heat from the plasma mixture to a source of a vaporizable fluid; vaporizing the vaporizable fluid with the at least some heat from the plasma mixture; and contacting the vaporized fluid with an electrical generator, wherein the vaporized fluid causes the electrical generator to generate electrical power. 